Evaluating Reading Informally Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Reading Informally Essay Informal approaches to the evaluation of literacy have developed in response to the demands for greater accountability and the influence of national, standardized testing. The strength of informal approaches to evaluation is that it provides immediate feedback to both the student and the teacher. The teacher can use a set of assessment tools to measure student learning while the student can receive specific guidance on what to do to improve her/his reading skills. This essay will explore four informal approaches to reading assessment: teacher observation, teacher-student conferences, workbooks and worksheets and reading portfolios. The first approach, teacher observation, is multi-faceted. It builds on the daily interaction between teacher and students. The purpose of the observation is diagnosis. Teachers â€Å"place students in appropriate materials; assess readiness for a given task; determine reading interest, assess attitudes; and make decisions about decoding, comprehension, and study skills (Pikulski and Shanahan, 1982, p. 2). Although McKenna and Stahl (2003) would agree with Pikulski and Shanahan (1982) about the importance of teacher observation, they would disagree about the purpose. McKenna and Stahl (2003) refer to the process of diagnosis as â€Å"The Deficit Model† (p. 2) and what emerges from such a model is terms like â€Å"remediation† and â€Å"remedial reader† (p. 2). Instead McKenna and Stahl (2003) prefer â€Å"A Cognitive Model† (p. 8) where the teacher observes the capacity of students for â€Å"automatic word recognition† (p. 10), â€Å"language comprehension† (p. 15), and â€Å"strategic knowledge† (p. 19). Taking â€Å"automatic word recognition† as one example of how teachers apply their observation skills, teachers examine students’ abilities to predict or judge the appropriateness of a word in a given context, the fluency with which students read aloud passages in class, how quickly and accurately students recognize the most common words in the English language, whether students can use their language skills to decode new, unfamiliar words, and whether students understand the sounds associated with letters and words, not just the contexts. The second informal assessment technique, teacher-student conference, provides an opportunity for the teacher to assess student perceptions of their own progress. Rather than using the conference like a teacher-parent conference where the parents receive updates on the child’s progress, the teacher-student conference provides an opportunity for teachers to understand a student’s reading interests, attitudes towards reading, and the meaning-making strategies a student uses in the process of reading various kinds of materials (Pikulski and Shanahan, 1982, p. 3). Caldwell (2002) identifies three purposes of reading assessment: identify good reader behaviors, determine student reading level, and document student progress (p. 5). Some of what Caldwell (2002) identifies as good reading behaviors can be gauged during teacher-student conferences, especially in how each individual student makes meaning from any given text. Some of Caldwell’s (2002) reader behaviors are to â€Å"connect what they know with the information in the text, determine what is important in the text, recognize the structure of the text, and summarize and reorganize ideas in the text† (p. 8). Standardized tests do not allow students to use their personal backgrounds in interpretive reading, nor does it allow for exploring more than one important idea (the main idea) in a text. By using teacher-student conferences in a way that all students can express themselves, teachers create a space for increased learning. This idea touches on what McKenna and Stahl (2003) call â€Å"The Contextual Approach,† one distinct from a learning style model (p. 3). The third informal reading assessment, workbooks and worksheets, enable teachers to focus on individual students and their needs in practicing a specific skill (Pikulski and Shanahan, 1982, p. 8). The numerous workbooks on the market and worksheets on the internet make this approach a relative quick and time-saving way to assess student learning. None of the informal instructional methods should be used alone and this particular assessment method highlights the danger of approaching one method as a singular way to help students improve their reading skills. Reading instructors want students to not only improve their facility with recognizing and constructing words, sentences, and paragraphs, we also want students to make inferences, ask questions about the implications of a particular way of thinking, and synthesize multiple sources of information on an issue (Caldwell, 2002, p. 8). The ability to perform these latter tasks is consistent with what McKenna and Stahl (2003) describe as strategic reading knowledge (p. 19). Finally, the fourth assessment technique, reading portfolios, enable students to develop an informed perspective about their own reading and writing. Documenting student progress is one of the three reasons for assessing reading (Caldwell, 2002, p. 11). The benefit of this approach as an informal technique is that is shows the student the specific kind of improvement made in any given area. Unlike standardized tests, which compare students to a national norm or a cutoff score (Caldwell, 2002, p. 12-13), records of student progress assess a student’s learning in the area of reading over time. It also provides feedback to the instructor about teaching strengths and weaknesses. Specifically, reading portfolios â€Å"help the student keep track of books read, favorite stories, scores on workbooks/worksheets, or progress in various learning centers† (Pikulski and Shanahan, 1982, p. 8). In summarizing the value of informal reading assessments, Caldwell (2002) states it very succinctly when she says, â€Å"informal instruments are authentic than formal measures. They are similar to the actual task of reading. Reading a passage and retelling its contents are more authentic than reading a short paragraph and answering multiple-choice questions by filling in little bubbles on a scan sheet† (p. 13). The word â€Å"authentic† refers to an assessment’s ability to measure reading. Caldwell (2002) describes the value of informal assessment tools in their ability to mimic the reading process. Informal assessment techniques return control of the learning process to the teachers and students who interact on a daily basis within a classroom. In many ways, they are more important than formal reading assessments because they provide qualitative feedback. References Caldwell, J. S. (2002). Reading assessment: A primer for teachers and tutors. New York: The Guilford Press. Johns, J. L. (1982).The dimensions and uses of informal reading assessment. In J. J. Pikulski and T. Shanahan (Eds. ), Approaches to the informal evaluation of reading. (pp. 1-11). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. McKenna, M. C. , and Stahl, S. A. (2003). Assessment for reading instruction. New York: The Guilford Press. Tierney, R. J. (1991). Portfolio assessment in the reading-writing classroom. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. 9 November 2008. http://library. gcu. edu. Yancey, K. B. (1989). Reflection in the writing classroom. Logan, UT: Utah University Press. 9 November 2008. http://library. gcu. edu.

My Philosophy Statement Essays -- Progressivism Teaching Education Ess

My Philosophy Statement Education is a very important aspect of our lives. It is our education that makes us who we are and determines what we become. Therefore, education is not something to be taken lightly. As a teacher, my goal will be to provide the best possible education for my students. Every student is unique. I must see students for who they are individually and respect their ideas and opinions. Each student has a different learning style. I must take this into consideration because I want to provide a constructive learning opportunity for every student. I believe that every student has the potential to learn. My philosophy at this point is progressivism. William James and John Dewey are accredited for developing the characteristically American philosophy that is progressivism. Progressivism relies on the theory that the student should be the focal point. By adjusting the curriculum and teaching techniques to reflect the student’s needs and interests, the teacher is encouraging the student’s desire to learn. Another theory of progressivism is that of a democratic system. Students will fare better in life if they are exposed to the ideas and cultures of different ethnicities and personalities early. By encouraging group work, instead of solo work that will lead to competitions, the students will be more open minded and will be better prepared for the diverse world. A branch of progressivism is logic and it is one that the students will come to know by the progressivist ideal that what is learned in the classroom has relevance to the real world. Progressivists believe that education should mirror life. Education often uses past experiences to gain more knowledge, much like life. Therefore, e... ...book. The teaching methods used in a progressivism classroom supports the idea of problem-based learning wherein the students are required to develop original solutions to existing or potential societal problems. Together with the teacher and classmates, students are given the opportunity to speculate and question the world around them and the world awaiting them. Within small peer groups, for instance, students are encouraged to discuss, share and compromise. The teacher is there to encourage this process rather than to provide prescribed solutions. Similarly, the learning environment is collaborative and democratic, giving opportunity for all to speak their minds and receive feedback from peers as well as the teacher. This continuous loop of feedback, potentially positive or negative, serves as the means of assessment for problem-solving based instruction.

Economic impact of genetically modified foods Essay

Genetic engineering has resulted to the production of genetically modified foods. It entails altering the genetic make up of plants using a set of technologies. Genes are combined from different organisms through recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering results to enhanced food tastes and quality. It reduces the time for maturation and can be used to increase nutrients and yields of crops. Again the crops produced are stress tolerant and they are resistant to disease and pests and herbicides. Genes are taken from one species and inserted into another to produce quality products. Genetically modified foods were first established in the 1990s with most products being Soya, cottonseed and wheat. The process could involve taking DNA from favorable organisms and inserting in a plant or crop. Biotechnology can be used to solve difficult crop production challenges where the farmers using it do not have to worry about the quality of their products. The technique is environmentally friendly and hence poses no threat to the surrounding. It does not involve emission of pollutants to the atmosphere. Farmers using biotechnology in their crop production increase their incomes and acquire economic, environmental and social benefits. (Giannakas K & Yiannanaka, 90) Although some people fear consuming genetically modified crops extensive research has been done on them to ensure that they pose no health risk to consumers. They are similar to those produced using traditional methods of breeding. Prominent scientists have also cleared the concerns that GM would be a risk to the environment. To them GM is a safe way of improving agriculture. International organizations also support this viewpoint for instance Food and Agriculture Organization (F. A. O) of the United Nations and the European Commission. Therefore people should not fear consuming GM foods as they are safe. Land is a fixed resource which can only be modified by increasing its utility. Measures ought to be taken to ensure that idle land is put to effective use. However care should be taken to ensure that harmful effects do not occur to the environment. For instance cutting trees to plant GM crops would have negative effects on the climate. Trees control the levels of carbon dioxide and consequently global warming. Population on the other hand grows at higher rates and concerns that food shortages would arise, led to the introduction of biotechnology. Through genetic modification of crops the problems of land shortages or water resources can be well contained. Smaller areas of land can be used to produce large outputs. Genetically modified foods can help farmers produce more food products which is healthy and with fewer resources. Continued research by bio-technicians is done to ensure production meets the consumer’s specific demands. It can establish plants that are drought resistant and hence can survive hostile conditions. Genetically Modified crops can increase the incomes of countries tremendously. Developing countries can adopt GM technology as it will increase the GDP Gross Domestic Product. This income can be used to improve the infrastructure facilities in the less developed countries and this would see them embrace economic growth and development. Investment in improving the transportation network would improve the basis for other industries which can now easily transport their raw materials and finished goods to appropriate destinations. (Carpenter J & Gianessi L, 67) Trade will be promoted by using GM products. Most developing countries do not have a diversified economy and they over rely on agriculture. Agriculture is a critical industry which is affected by climatic changes, pesticides and other factors like invasion by animals. With Genetic Modification one is guaranteed of quality products. Developing countries use their agricultural products to earn foreign exchange through external trading processes like exports. Problems faced by farmers are rejection of their products by foreign consumers on the basis of poor quality. GM products are enhanced to ensure that they are of high quality and consequently will not be rejected. GM products require less use of pesticides as they are not very prone to such use. This further reduces the cost of production on farmers who will not have to buy pesticides. A reduction of costs is an economic gain to farmers. Such costs would reduce the profits that farmers could have got. Extensive use of Genetically Modified soyabeans increases their contribution to reduce pesticide application. Farmers can decrease the need for tillage which can cause reduction in soil erosion and thus reduce the water treatment costs that consumers incur annually. (Giannakas K & Yiannanaka, 85) GM crop production has led to the growth of the food industry to very high levels. The demand can be categorized into consumer levels, retailing level and food processors. Using Genetically Modified products is a safe way of enhancing people’s way of life substantially by improving their health care and their environment. It supplements the traditional cross breeding methods and hence is not a new venture. It is just a modification. Poverty in developing countries can be eliminated with the use of GM. Since most of Less Developed countries have not embraced technological advancement in the agricultural industry they rely on natural processes in their production. Natural processes pose a great threat as fluctuations are bound to occur affecting the quality and quantity of products produced. GM would see such farmers at better positions to handle the impact of natural calamities of crop production in terms of quantity and quality. Hunger would be a thing of the past if GM was completely embraced. With increased crop yields the poverty levels of people in developing countries would be eliminated. They would trade the surplus both internally and externally to earn incomes which they can use to raise their living standards. With abundant food production health related problems can be solved and this further reduces the costs that would have been incurred seeking health facilities. Use of GM would ensure that there is a sustainable agricultural system. Its use in cotton production for instance in India where the greatest challenge to cotton production is insect and pest invasion can be beneficial. Implementation of GM cotton production increased the production rates to unprecedented rates. The prior losses caused by reduced quantity due to insects and pests became a thing of the past. The GM product is more resistant to the pest and can cause a reduction of pesticides by higher levels while increasing the yields to approximately 80%. This translates to savings on insecticides. Other factors held constant of prices of GM cotton were relatively the same with those of non GM then there would be increased revenues earned. Sustainable agriculture is the key to food security. Population levels are projected to the distribution of resources among nations affect the way the market forces operate. Unequal distribution of resources precipitates variations of needs between the rich and the poor. Since the poor lack resources to advance in technology so that they can shift from agricultural production to industry. Adoption of the genetically modified crops would increase the production of crop yields. Food shortages in the developing countries affect the developed countries who feel the responsibility of assisting them through donations. Bio-technological aspects are driven by the need to solve issues that are critical in the society. Development of a GM rice project would work to help reduce the rates of blindness caused by deficiencies in vitamin A. Again crops that provide other important nutrients like iron can be GM controlled. Provision of foods with effective nutrients can help improve the health standards of people. With a decrease in the demand for pesticides the firms that produce them would face stiff competition which would see their prices reduced. This will be a negative impact to pesticide producing companies. They may be forced to lay off some of their employees and at extreme situations they may close down. GM food has great potential to provide health to humans especially in developing countries. For instance use of GM banana to prevent the some diseases like hepatitis B virus. Invention of genetically modified crops that can be used for medicinal purposes would be a positive advancement. Adjusting the crop to enable it accommodate important chemicals would reduce the costs of offering medical care. Quality and better products are produced using GM and these products can survive under a wide range of climate. This would ensure more production of such goods which can be used for consumption as well as for exports and local markets. GM products are more attractive to consumers since they have been modified to suit different needs. More preference would mean higher sales when goods are placed in the markets and consequently more incomes. (Carter A. nd Guillaume G, 20) Growing GM crops without use of spray chemicals makes the crop easier for farmers to grow at reduced costs. The indirect costs would be reduced for instance the cost of labour used in spraying the pesticides as well as the environmental hazards created. Other benefits of using GM are that it is possible to enhance the quality of crops by emphasizing on the positive ones while removing the undesirable qualities. Using genetic technology is faster than using conventional breeding. Water use is also effectively reduced when pesticides are not used. GM reduces the work that would have been done if it was considered. (Carpenter J & Gianessi L, 70) Genetic engineering instills fear in people but such fears are uncalled for as they are based on prejudice and exaggerations. It has seen many people rise from poverty to grace. GM cultivation is among the most economically viable form of farming. It has led to the reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases which are responsible for global warming. This is due to the fact that the pesticides use is minimal. Production of fertilizers emits hazardous gases like nitric acid which cause the greenhouse effects. Farmers using GM crops in developing countries can afford to educate their children as well as provide for their families. Educating children especially in the developing countries is a step to breaking the vicious cycle of poverty. This is because with the investment in education overeliance in agriculture would be reduced. With GM, crops can be made to grow at shorter periods with increased desirable qualities. Drought resistant crops can be use to alleviate the famine problems in developing countries. With shorter spans of maturity crops can be used for commercial purposes earning farmers incomes. GM products can be enhanced to stay fresh for longer to allow for effective transportation. This can be done to flowers and fruits which are quite perishable. The costs of preservation can be reduced as it would not be required with the same intensity it could have been, had GM production not been considered. Again, wastage is reduced when ‘fresh’ periods are prolonged. Production of GM products can be cheaper due to the fact that they can be made firm hence consist lesser amount of water and require less amount of water when harvesting and consequently less energy in processing them to other products. For instance, tomato puree in Britain. Less energy in production caused lesser costs to the producers who charged lower prices to consumers. GM Soya helps save costs of using herbicides as weeds are controlled. (Falck-Zepeda et al, 2) Critics raise concerns that since pollen grains of GM can easily be carried to other plants through insects or wind, eventually all crops will be genetically modified. To them this will be a disastrous effect. Countries which could have greatly gained from GM, have not embraced the idea. Some, especially from the developing countries, were quick to note that GM did not help their farmers. Contamination is therefore bound to occur where GM soyabean pollen grains may be contaminated with GM maize pollens. Concerns are however raised that the profits are the main reasons for advocating for GM. Companies that engage in expensive and extensive research do so with their own vested interests of earning more income. It is argued that the motive behind their implementation is to make money and the argument placed before that GM was to help solve the food shortages. Extensive research ought to be carried out to establish the actual impact of GM so that consumers are well aware of the products they consume. Crop losses that are incurred when pests invade crops are minimized using GM because it ensures reduced insects and pests. This translates to higher revenues acquired, as there are less financial losses. Consumers are attracted to such products, as they are not linked with exposure to chemicals from pesticides. Some people shy away from crops exposed to pesticides for health reasons and they would have an option if GM crops were embraced. Another advantage of GM is that it is herbicide tolerant. Naturally it may be harder or difficult to remove weeds through tilling in some farms precipitating the need to use herbicides to control the weeds. Tilling is a time consumingactivity as well as expensive. When spraying such herbicides, care must be taken, as it would affect the entire group. All crops might be destroyed or they could be negatively affected when spraying the herbicides. GM products are not affected by the herbicides and hence their production will be better placed. They are also resistant to some disease causing organisms like fungi, bacteria and viruses. Ensuring that the plants are disease resistant will ensure the plants survival. (Falck-Zepeda et al, 2) Genetically Modified products can be made cold tolerant so that genes from a cold water fish can be used to produce crops that are more tolerant to cold temperatures. With the rise in population and fixed land for cultivation, there is need to utilize the drought stricken areas to increase their utility. GM crops are more drought resistant so that crop production is increased and it will be a step forward in ensuring that food security was attained. Land that was formerly inhabitable due to salinity or drought can be reclaimed. ( IFT, 45) The malnutrition problem in third world countries that is responsible for childhood deaths can be reduced with utilization of GM products that are enriched with appropriate vitamins. Since people in developing countries rely on the staple foods, which are mostly starch, they lack the necessary nutrients to fight malnutrition. Malnourished children are not able to successfully pursue their education and are therefore a problem to the whole country. If the developing countries suffering from this problem can embrace the Genetically Modified rice or other products that have such nutrients, their economy would grow eventually. ‘A healthy nation is wealthy nation. ’ Sicknesses associated with lack of appropriate nutrients require finances for treatment and such costs can be reduced. (Domingo L, 1749) Other concerns raised against GM production are fears that the cost of the GM products may rise uncontrollably especially if the genetic engineering firms who have invested a lot in research were to be given patent rights. They could only exist to perpetuate inequalities between the rich who could easily afford them and the poor who lack the means to attain them. Governments of respective countries ought to be keen in establishing the regulations governing the effects and approval of new GM varieties in their countries. However the tests done to verify the impacts of GM crops are run by governments but they are conducted by the GM companies themselves. The results could therefore be interfered with to give false information depending on vested interests. Gene modification is a complex activity that could cause allergies to people as they entail induction of proteins and new genes. Again the genes may be incompatible resulting to absurd effects and this raises concerns that the toxic effects could arise with the interruption of the native genetic structure. GM crops are resistant to antibiotics and there are worries that this would eventually be transferred to human beings thus affecting their health. Since GM crops are pest resistant they may lead to the extinction of some species. Chemical based farming affects wildlife especially in the farms. Birds and insects that influence the natural arable processes in the farm could have their existence affected if weeds are completely eliminated. Critics of GM foods argue that genetic engineering is not the solution to the food related problems especially in developing countries. Most people are not malnourished because of food shortages but because of its inaccessibility. Unequal distribution of resources is the main reason why some people cannot afford necessities like food. Governments of respective countries should handle the inequality issue in their country.

Defining Normative And Subjective Culture - 1743 Words

We are all defined, and heavily influenced by, the culture in which we have grown and adopted. Culture is defined as â€Å"the customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group†, according to The Oxford Dictionary, and can be separated into two specific classifications known as normative and subjective culture. Normative culture is â€Å"the connecting beliefs, values, tradition, economy, political and social institutions, artistic expressions and collective history of various interacting groups of people†. Subjective culture, however, represents â€Å"a society s characteristic way of perceiving its social environment†. My personal culture is emphasized by five categories of subjective culture, including nationality, regional identity, education, social/economic class, and age. Growing up as an American has shaped the culture with which I identify. Nationality, according to The Law Dictionary, is â€Å"th at quality or character which arises from the fact of a person’s belonging to a nation or state. Nationality determines the political status of the individual, especially with reference to allegiance; while domicile determines his civil status. Nationality arises either by birth or by naturalization.† Because The United States is so diverse, its citizens, including myself, are exposed to many different cultures which expand our enculturation, â€Å"the process by which an individual learns the traditional content of a culture andShow MoreRelatedETHICAL (MORAL) RELATIVISM Essay1022 Words   |  5 PagesSociety | PHI101 A01 July 17, 2013 Introduction Presently, Americans are comfortable relating ethics to individuality. Often times, American citizens expresses their right of freedoms to enhance their own sense of ethics or relativity. In defining relativism, moral principles are a matter of personal feelings and individual preference. 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